Abstract
AbstractSince the early nineteenth century, various ideologies have attempted to design education systems with an abundance of military attitudes for the future of the state and society, thereby benefiting paramilitary organizations and incorporating military educational practices into public education environments. In the aftermath of the two world wars, numerous countries, particularly nation-states, embraced the concept of militarised education systems. The incorporation of military methods into education dates back to the late Ottoman Period (after 1913). Following the establishment of the Republic in 1923, military courses were incorporated into the education curricula with the purpose of preparing the youth to confront the potential threats of war, fulfil security needs, and safeguard the homeland. After 1927, in addition to the theoretical courses, Military Service Preparation Camps were implemented. A decade later, this military camp approach was extended to all levels of education. As a result, the education system was transformed into learning environments where basic military skills and knowledge were taught. In this article, Military Service Preparation Camps, which were effectively implemented in the Turkish education system between 1926 and 1946, were investigated based on the primary sources and the recollections of individuals who actively participated in these camps. The primary objective of the military training camps, supervised and coordinated by the General Staff, was to 'prepare youth for homeland defence and total war, and to promote military service'. In this vein, this study seeks to unveil the impacts of rigorous military training on Turkish society, particularly in the post-1945 era.Keywords: MilitarismMilitary CoursesMilitary Service Preparation CampsPreparing for WarTotal WarEducation and Society Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.Notes1 Benjamin C. Fortna, Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).2 Mehmet Beşikçi, 'Militarizm, Topyekûn Savaş ve Gençliğin Seferber Edilmesi: Birinci Dünya Savaşı'nda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Paramiliter Dernekler' [Militarism, Total War, and Mobilization of Youth: Paramilitary Associations in the Ottoman Empire During the First World War], Tarih ve Toplum Yeni Yaklaşımlar, No. 8 /248 (2009), p.55.3 'Militarism', https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?scope=Entries&q=militarism (accessed 5 September 2023).4 Volker R. Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate, 1861- 1979 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p.7.5 Michael Mann, 'The Roots and Contradictions of Modern Militarism', New Left Rewiew Vol.1–162, (March–April, 1987), p.35; Alfred Vagts, History of Militarism: Civilian and Military (New York: The Free Press 1957), p.17.6 Murat Belge, Militarist Modernleşme [Militarist Modernization], (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2012), p.150.7 The best expression of militarism and relatedly social Darwinism, one of the axes of thought, in the Ottoman Empire is the concept of 'nation-in-arms' (millet-i müsallaha) formulated by Colmar Von der Goltz. Upon the request of the Sultan, Goltz's work Das Volk in Waffen was translated into Turkish under the title Millet-i Müsellaha in 1883 and the book was taught in military schools.8 Etyen Mahçupyan, 'Bir Mikro İdeoloji Olarak Militarizm: Zihniyet, Özne ve Etik Meseleleri Üzerine Bir Not' [Militarism as a Micro-Ideology: Notes on Mindset, Subjectivity, and Ethical Issues], in Ahmet İnsel and Ali Bayramog˘lu (eds), Bir Zümre Bir Parti Türkiye'de Ordu (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2013), pp.129–30.9 Cynthia Enloe, Manevralar, Kadın Yaşamının Militarize Edilmesine Yönelik Uluslararası Politikalar [Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives], trans. by Serpil Çağlayan (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2006), p.29.10 Roger Chickering and Stig Föster, Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Ian F. W. Beckett, 'Total War', in Arthur Marwick, Clive Emsley and Wendy Simpson (eds), Total War and Historical Change: Europe 1914–1955 (Buckingham: Open University Press, 2001).11 Mehmet Beşikçi, Birinci Dünya Savaşı'nda Osmanlı Seferberliği [Ottoman Mobilization in the First World War], (Istanbul: İş Bankası Yayınları, 2015), p.4.12 Ulrich Bröckling, Disiplin, Askeri İtaat Üretiminin Sosyolojisi ve Tarihi [Discipline: Sociology and History of the Production of Military Obedience] (Istanbul, Ayrıntı Yayınları, 2001), p.305.13 Filiz Meşeci Giorgetti, Eğitim Ritüelleri [Education Rituals] (Istanbul: Yeni İnsan Yayınevi, 2016), pp.133, 141.14 C. W. Hackensmith, History of Physical Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1966,) p.132.15 C. B. Otley, 'Militarism and Militarization in the Public School, 1900-1972', British Journal of Sociology, Vol.29, No.3 (September 1978), p.330; J. A. Mangan and Hamad S. Ndee, 'Military Drill – Rather More Than "Brief and Basic": English Elementary Schools and English Militarism', in J. A. Mangan (ed.), Militarism, Sport and Europe: War Without Weapons (London: Routledge, 2003), p.73.16 Sanem Yamak Ateş, Asker Evlatlar Yetiştirmek, II. Meşrutiyet Dönemi'nde Beden Terbiyesi Askerî Talim ve Paramiliter Gençlik Örgütler [Raising Soldier Sons: Physical Education, Military Training, and Paramilitary Youth Organizations in the Second Constitutional Period] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2012), pp.82–103.17 'İtalyan Gençlik Teşkilatı' [Italian Youth Organization], Beden Terbiyesi ve Spor [Physical Education and Sports], Vol.7 (July 1939), pp.45–48.18 Özlem Gürsoy and Mustafa Gündüz, 'An Oral History Study on Preparatory Camps for Military Service in Schools in the Republican Era (1935–1947)', Yakın Dönem Türkiye Araştırmaları Vol. 40 (2021), pp.1–28.19 'Camping', Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/search?query=camping (accessed 3 March 2022).20 https://www.frederickgunn.org/about/history-traditions/about-our-founder (accessed 5 March 2022).21 Reynold E. Carlson, 'Organised Camping', The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol.313/1 (1957), p.83.22 Ron Ramsing, 'Organized Camping: A Historical Perspective', Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 16(4) (2007), p.751.23 Carlson, 'Organised Camping', pp.84–85.24 İstanbul Talebe ve Öğretmen Kampları 1936-1939 [Istanbul Student and Teacher Camps 1936-1939] (Istanbul: Ülkü Basımevi, 1939), p.13.25 Mutlu Türkmen, Beden Terbiyesi [Physical Education] (Ankara: Spor Yayınevi, 2018), pp.52–55.26 İlk Mektepler Müfredat Programı [Primary School Curriculum Programme] (Istanbul: Matbaayı Amire, 1340/1924), p.5.27 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı [Military Preparation Curriculum], (Ankara, 1927), p.8.28 İstanbul Talebe ve Öğretmen Kampları (1936–1939), pp.7–10.29 Turkish Republican Archives, hereafter BCA, 11 October 1945, 30-18.1-2/ 109-61-, pp.9–10.30 Ezra P. Young-İlhami Polater, Kamp El Kitabı [Camp Handbook] (Istanbul: Mehmet Ali Basımevi, 1944), p.13.31 Kazım Nami Duru, Kemalist Rejimde Eğitim ve Öğretim [Education and Instruction in the Kemalist Regime] (Istanbul: KanaatKitapevi, 1939), p.49.32 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Maarifi 1940–1941 [Turkish Republic Ministry of Education 1940-1941] (Istanbul: Maarif Matbaası, 1941, p.114.33 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı [Military Preparation Curriculum] (1927), p.8; Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası [The Journal of Communiques of the Ministry of National Education] Vol. 4 (1927), pp.432–34.34 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri [Military Preparation Courses] (Ankara: Genelkurmay Matbaası, 1935), p.6.35 A lot of news, comments and articles about these practices were published in the newspapers and magazines of the period.36 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri Hakkında Talimatname D-60 [Instruction D-60 on Military Preparation Courses] (Ankara: Genelkurmay Matbaası 1940), p.6.37 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri Hakkında (1940) [About Military Preparation Courses (1940)], p.11.38 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri Hakkında (1940) [About Military Preparation Courses (1940)], p.12.39 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı (1927) [Military Preparation Curriculum (1927)], pp.3–4.40 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1935) [Military Preparation Courses (1935)], p.10.41 Âli Deniz Ticaret Mektebinin IV. ve V. Sınıflarında Okutulacak Askerliğe Hazırlık Derslerinin Müfredat Programı [Curriculum Programme for Military Preparation Courses to be Taught in IV and V Grades of Axelted Shipping School] (Istanbul: Deniz Matbaası, 1937).42 Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Maarifi 1940–1941 [Turkish Republic Ministry of Education 1940-1941], p.116.43 Interview with Muharrem Özmelek (born 1925) on 24 September 2018; Orhan Yavuz (born 1924) on 10 October 2018; Özcan Köknel (born 1928) on 1 December 2018; Ruhi Kafescioğlu (born 1920) on 12 January 2019; Ali İhsan Futacı (born 1923) on 20 April 2019; Galip Uzunca (born 1923) on 30 August 2019; Aram Kamburyan (born 1926) on 7 November 2019).44 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1940) [Military Preparation Courses (1940)], pp.11–12; Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1945) [Military Preparation Courses (1945)], pp.5–7; 'Ankara Lisesi Kampı' [Ankara High School Camp], Hâkimiyet-i Milliye, 24 June 1933, p.3.45 Tahir Tipi, Askerliğe Hazırlık I [Military Preparation I] (Ankara: Maarif Matbaası, 1941).46 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri Hakkında (1940) [About Military Preparation Courses], p.6; Türkiye Cumhuriyet Maarifi 1940-1941 [Turkish Republic Ministry of Education 1940-1941], p.117.47 Milli Savunma Yönetmeliği (D-60) [National Defence Regulation (D-60)] (Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1947), pp.11–12.48 Interview with Özden İnönü (born 1930) on 17 November 2018.49 'Yüksek Tahsil Kızlarımızın Askerlik Kursları' [Higher Education Military Courses for our Girls], Cumhuriyet, 22 August 1947, p.3.50 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı (1927) [Military Preparation Curriculum (1927)], p.10.51 TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi, Dönem Altı, Toplantı 16 [TBMM Minutes of Proceedings, Sixth Term, Meeting 16], V. 22, (15 December 1941), pp.55–57.52 'Talebe Kamplarında Disiplini Bozanlar Askerî Nizamlara Göre Ceza Görecekler' [Students who Break Discipline in Camps will be Punished According to Military Regulations], Haber Akşam Postası, 16 June 1936, p.3.53 Turan Tanyer, Ankara'nın Köklü Çınarı Atatürk Lisesi 1886–2007 [Atatürk High School, Ankara's Esteemed Institution 1886–2007] (Ankara: Ankara Atatürk Lisesi Eğitim Vakfı, 2007), p.164.54 Muzaffer Erciş, Yaşadım (1923–1973) [I Lived] (1923–1973)] (Istanbul: Kişisel Yayınlar, 1999), pp.40–41; Cengiz Yalçın and Mustafa Yaşar, Pertevniyal: Ulu Bir Çınar [Pertevniyal: A Great Tree] (Istanbul: Pertevniyal Lisesi'nden Yetişenler Derneği, 2012), p.248.55 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı (1927), [Military Preparation Curriculum (1927)], p.9.56 This is a maritime transportation company owned by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality.57 Interview with Ali İhsan Futacı (born 1923) on 20 April 2019.58 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1940) [Military Preparation Courses (1940)], p.8.59 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı (1927) [Military Preparation Curriculum (1927)], p.8.60 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1935) [Military Preparation Courses (1935)], pp.8–9.61 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1940) [Military Preparation Courses (1940)], p.14.62 'Askerliğe Hazırlanan Gençler' [Young People Preparing for Military Service], Ulus, 10 September 1937, p.2.63 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1940) [Military Preparation Courses 1940], p.9.64 Interview with Özcan Köknel (born1928) on 1 December 2018.65 Halil İbrahim Tunalı, 'Haziran 1942-Yedek Subaylık Kapısını Aralayan İlk Askerlik Kampımız' [June 1942-Our First Military Training Camp that Opened the Door to Reserve Officership], http://www.halilibrahimtunali.net/index.php/1942-14-April-19-June (accessed 15 March 2022).66 Interview with Mehmet Emin Altan (born 1920) on 7 July 2018.67 Interview with Galip Uzunca (born 1923) on 3 August 2019.68 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı (1927) [Military Preparation Curriculum (1927)].69 Maarif Vekâleti Tebliğler Mecmuası [The Journal of Communiques of the Ministry of National Education], Vol. 31 (12 July 1939), p.143.70 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı, Askeri Ehliyetname Almak ve İhtiyat Zabiti Hazırlık Kıtaları Hakkında Talimatname D-60 [Instruction D-60 on Military Preparation Curriculum, Military Competency Certificates, and Reserve Officer Preparation Units] (Ankara: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Erkân-ı Harbiye Umumiye Riyaseti, 1927), p.8.71 Turan Tanyer, Cumhuriyet'in Meşalesi TED Ankara Koleji, 80 Yılın Hikâyesi [The Torchbearer of the Republic: The Story of TED Ankara College's 80 Years] (Ankara: TED Ankara Vakfı, 2011), p.209.72 'Kampta 24 Saat Nasıl Geçiyor?' [How 24 Hours Pass at Camp]; 'Kampta Gece Hayatı Nasıl Geçer?' [How is Nightlife at Camp?], Ulus, 9 July 1936, p.9.73 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri Yönetmeliği (1945) [Regulation on Military Preparation Courses (1945)], p.21.74 'Kamp Bitti Bugün Resmi Geçit Var' [Camp Ended, Today is the Official Parade], Anadolu, 28 July 1939, pp.1 and 9.75 'Liseliler Kamptan Döndüler' [High School Students Returned from Camp], Anadolu, 29 July 1939, pp.1 and 8.76 Talip Apaydın, Köy Enstitüsü Yılları [Years of Village Institutes] (Istanbul: Literatür Yayıncılık, 2009), p.79.77 'Üniversite Gençleri Kampında Birkaç Saat' [Camp Life; A Few Hours at the University Students' Camp], Son Posta, number 3598, 1 August 1940, p.2.78 Yalçın and Yaşar, ibid, p.249.79 'Talebe Kamplarında Disiplini Bozanlar Askerî Nizamlara Göre Ceza Görecek' [Students who Break Discipline in Camps will be Punished According to Military Regulations], Haber, 16 June 1936, p.3.80 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersler I (1940) [Military Preparation Courses (1940)], p.9.81 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1945) [Military Preparation Courses (1945)], pp.10–11.82 Interview with Hıfzı Topuz (born1923) on 26 July 2018; Galip Uzunca.83 Interview with Ali Hüsrev Bozer (born 1925) on 15 November 2018.84 Maarif Vekâleti, Tebliğler Mecmuası [The Journal of Communiques of the Ministry of National Education], Vol.25, (15 March 1928), pp.26–60.85 Askerliğe Hazırlık Tedrisatı (1935) [Military Preparation Curriculum (1935)], p.7.86 Maarif Vekilliği Tebliğler Dergisi [The Journal of Communiques of the Ministry of National Education], Vol. 31 (12 July 1939), p.143.87 Askerliğe Hazırlık Dersleri (1935) [Military Preparation Courses (1935)], p.9.88 'Erkek Lisesi Kampında Bir Saat' [One Hour at the Boys' School Camp], Ulus, 30 July 1937.89 'Ankara Lise Kampı' [Ankara High School Camp], Hâkimiyet-i Milliye, 24 July 1933, p.3.90 'Genç Liseliler Kampta' [Young High Schoolers at Camp], Anadolu, 16 July 1938, pp.1 and 3.91 İsmail Kaplan, Türkiye'de Milli Eğitim İdeolojisi [National Education Ideology in Turkey] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2005), pp.118-29.92 Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Tebliğler Dergisi [The Journal of Communiques of the Ministry of National Education], Vol. 543, (29 September 1947), pp.87–88.93 BCA, 113-22-13/ 74-18.94 Milli Savunma Öğretimi Yönetmeliği [National Defence Regulation] (Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi 1947), pp.5–12.95 Multiple regulations were issued after 1947-48: BCA,114-41-3/ 74-18; CA, no: 116-42-13/ 74-18; BCA, 123-53-10/ 74-18; CA, 126-47-11/ 74-18; BCA, 30-18-1-2/ 129-37-11; CA, 132-47-8/ 74-18.96 Kemal Aka, Mustafa Çiçekoğlu, Milli Savuma Bilgileri Birinci Kitap [National Defence Information First Book] (Istanbul: Güven Basımevi, 1949), pp.46–48.97 Gürsoy and Gündüz, pp.5–25.98 Ateş, ibid, pp.82–103.99 'Kamp Bitti Bugün Resmi Geçit Var' [Camp Ended, Today is the Official Parade], Anadolu, 28 June 1939.100 Gürsoy and Gündüz, pp.1–18.101 Interview with Muharrem Özmelek (born 1925) on 24 September 2018.102 Altemur Kılıç, Kılıç'tan Kılıç'a Bir Dönemim Tanıklığı [Witness to an Era: From Sword to Sword], (Istanbul: Remzi Kitapevi, 2005), p.111.103 Interview with Doğan Haşhaş (born 1927) on 7 September 2018.104 Interview with Ruhi Kafescioğlu (born 1920) on 12 January 2019.105 Interview with Özcan Köknel (born 1928) on 1 December 2018.106 BCA, 030/01-90/559/4/5-6.
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